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Coenzyme
⌊ Vitamins
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⌊ Coenzyme A (CoA)
⌊ Coenzyme Q (CoQ)
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⌊ NADP
⌊ Pyridoxal Phosphate
⌊ Tetrahydrofolates
⌊ Thiamine Pyrophosphates
⌊ Group Transfer Coenzymes
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Cofactors
⌊ Prosthetic Groups
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  Coenzyme
  Coenzyme
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Coenzymes

 
“CoEnzymes (Enzyme Cofactors)”  

Coenzyme

    In biochemistry, a Coenzyme is a low-molecular-weight, non-protein organic compound, participating in enzymatic reactions as dissociable acceptor or donor of chemical groups or electrons.

CoEnzymes

    In our body, the biochemical cofactors called CoEnzymes (Enzyme Cofactors) are the small mostly organic molecules and metal ions, that link to enzymes (helper molecules), whose presence are important if not essential to the enzyme activation of the associated enzyme.

CoEnzyme Binding

    In our body, CoEnzymes belong to the larger group called "enzyme cofactors" that either bind tightly (prosthetic group) or loosely (cosubstrates) to enzymes (helper molecules) as they participate in the catalysis of a metabolic pathway.
Examples of coenzyme groupings include:
  • vitamins
  • group transfer coenzymes
Examples of substances that may play a role as a coenzyme include:
  • coenzyme vitamer C
    • L-ascorbic acid
    • L-dehydroascorbic acid
    • sodium ascorbate
  • sapropterin
    • sapropterin dihydrochloride
  • 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin
  • S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe)

Other more specific coenzyme examples include:
  • flavins
    • Riboflavin
      • Flavin-Adenine Dinucleotide
      • Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
  • PQQ Cofactor
  • Ubiquinone
*
[26136]
“Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ cofactor)”  

Pyrroloquinoline Quinone

    In organic chemistry, Pyrroloquinoline quinones are organic compounds in the organoheterocyclic compound superclass, with a structure based on the 2,7,-tricarboxy-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-f]quinoline-4,5-dione.

PQQ Cofactor (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone)

    In our body's cells, PQQ Cofactor (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone), as a coenzyme (Coenzyme PQQ), is a pyrrolo-quinoline having two adjacent keto-groups at the 4 and 5 positions and usually bear three acidic carboxyl groups (a carboxylic acid group at the C-2, C-7 and C-9 positions).
Pyrroloquinoline Quinone is present in the bacterial quinoprotein, quinoproteins methanol dehydrogenase.
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ cofactor), formula C14H6N2O8 and a net charge of 0, is a tricarboxylic acid, an orthoquinone (O-quinone), a pyrroloquinoline cofactor (PQ cofactor) and the conjugate acid of pyrroloquinoline quinone(3-), with a role as both a cofactor and a water-soluble vitamin.
    Examples of subsets, concepts, subjects and related entities of the pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) include:
  • PQQ disodium salt (PQQ·Na2)
  • imidazolopyrroloquinoline (IPQ)
  • imidazolopyrroloquinoline with attached R-group
[33073]
“Lipoic Acid (Thioctic Acid or Thiotic Acid)”  
Aminos

Lipoic acid

    In our body, Lipoic Acid (Thiotic Acid or Thioctic Acid) also known as vitamin N, is a Sulfur based, fat soluble antioxidant coenzyme, that as a thiophene has a chemical structure similar to biotin, produced in our body, that plays an important role in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fatty acids and protein.
    In organic chemistry, as a carboxylic acid, Thioctic Acid (alpha-Lipoic Acid), C8H14O2S2, is an octanoic acid bridged with two sulfurs (a pentanoic acid), that may be biosynthesized by cleavage of linoleic acid and is a coenzyme of oxoglutarate dehydrogenase.

In our body's cell's, Lipoic acid is an essential enzyme cofactor that requires covalent attachment to its cognate proteins to confer biological activity.
The major lipoylated proteins are highly conserved enzymes of central metabolism, the pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes.
    Examples of lipoic acid related compounds include:
  • (R)-lipoic acid
  • (S)-lipoic acid
  • lipoyl-AMP
  • lipoamides
  • lipoate
  • lipoyl group
[60097]
“Biopterins and Biopterin derivatives”  

Biopterin

    In our body, Biopterin, in the pterin class of organic heterocyclic compounds, is a natural coenzyme considered as a growth factor synthesized in the pineal gland several other places in the body.
[31479]
“Nicotinamide-Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)”  

NAD (Nicotinamide-Adenine Dinucleotide)

    In our body's cells, Nicotinamide-Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme composed of the two nucleotides; ribosylnicotinamide 5'-diphosphate coupled to adenosine 5'-phosphate by pyrophosphate linkage, involved in numerous enzymatic reactions, serving as an electron carrier by being alternately oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH).
    Examples of NAD (nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide) subsets, subjects, concepts and related entities include:
  • NAD+ (oxidized NAD)
  • NADH (reduced NAD)
  • NAD zwitterion (C21H27N7O14P2)
  • 2-hydro-beta-NAD
  • 6-hydro-beta-NAD
  • tetrahydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

[75410]

References:

Oubrie A.   et al "Active-site structure of the soluble quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase complexed with methylhydrazine: a covalent cofactor-inhibitor complex"   Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Oct 12;96(21):11787-91
  Chowanadisai W.   et al "Pyrroloquinoline quinone stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis through cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation and increased PGC-1alpha expression"   J Biol Chem. 2010 Jan 1;285(1):142-52  
Rucker R.   "Potential physiological importance of pyrroloquinoline quinone"   Altern Med Rev 2009 Sep;14(3):268-77
  Huang Y.   et al "Biological effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone on liver damage in Bmi-1 knockout mice"   Exp Ther Med 2015 Aug;10(2):451-458  
  Lu J.   et al "Mitochondrial regulation by pyrroloquinoline quinone prevents rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in Parkinson's disease models"   Neurosci Lett 2018 Nov 20;687:104-110  
  Mitchell AE.   et al "Characterization of pyrroloquinoline quinone amino acid derivatives by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and detection in human milk"   Anal Biochem 1999 May 1;269(2):317-25  
  Zhang B.   et al "Effect of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium in female rats during gestating and lactating on reproductive performance and the intestinal barrier functions in the progeny."   Br J Nutr 2019 Apr;121(7):818-830  
  Saihara K.   et al "Pyrroloquinoline Quinone, a Redox-Active o-Quinone, Stimulates Mitochondrial Biogenesis by Activating the SIRT1/PGC-1α Signaling Pathway"   Biochemistry 2017 Dec 19;56(50):6615-6625  
  Kumazawa T.   et al "Levels of pyrroloquinoline quinone in various foods"   Biochem J 1995 Apr 15;307 ( Pt 2)(Pt 2):331-3  
  Xu X.   et al "Pyrroloquinoline quinone can prevent chronic heart failure by regulating mitochondrial function"   Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2020 Jun;10(3):453-469  
  Harris CB.   et al "Dietary pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) alters indicators of inflammation and mitochondrial-related metabolism in human subjects"   J Nutr Biochem 2013 Dec;24(12):2076-84  
  Wu Y.   et al "Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) alleviated sepsis-induced acute liver injury, inflammation, oxidative stress and cell apoptosis by downregulating CUL3 expression"   Bioengineered 2021 Dec;12(1):2459-2468  
  Jonscher KR.   et al "Pyrroloquinoline-Quinone Is More Than an Antioxidant: A Vitamin-like Accessory Factor Important in Health and Disease Prevention"   Biomolecules 2021 Sep 30;11(10):1441  
Singh U.   et al "Alpha-lipoic acid supplementation and diabetes"   Nutr Rev. 2008 Nov;66(11):646-57
Jordan SW.   et al "A new metabolic link. The acyl carrier protein of lipid synthesis donates lipoic acid to the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in Escherichia coli and mitochondria"   J Biol Chem. 1997 Jul 18;272(29):17903-6
  Du X.   et al "Oral benfotiamine plus alpha-lipoic acid normalises complication-causing pathways in type 1 diabetes"   Diabetologia. 2008 Oct;51(10):1930-2  
  Li.   et al "Protective Efficacy of Alpha-lipoic Acid against AflatoxinB1-induced Oxidative Damage in the Liver"   Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2014 Jun;27(6):907-15  
  Flora SJ.   "Structural, chemical and biological aspects of antioxidants for strategies against metal and metalloid exposure"   Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2009 Sep-Oct;2(4):191-206  
Kapatos G.   et al "Biosynthesis of biopterin: adrenergic cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent inhibition in the pineal gland"   Science. 1981 Sep 4;213(4512):1129-31
  Chi Y.   et al "Nicotinamide riboside, a trace nutrient in foods, is a vitamin B3 with effects on energy metabolism and neuroprotection"   Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013 Nov;16(6):657-61  
  Hong W.   et al "Nicotinamide Mononucleotide: A Promising Molecule for Therapy of Diverse Diseases by Targeting NAD+ Metabolism"   Front Cell Dev Biol. 2020; 8: 246  
  Trammell SAJ.   et al "Nicotinamide riboside is uniquely and orally bioavailable in mice and humans"   Nat Commun 2016 Oct 10;7:12948  
   †The statements on this Web site have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). And are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent disease. The information presented is not intended to replace medical advice or treatment from your own doctor or healthcare provider. Nothing presented here is intended as a substitute for prescription medication or any other medical treatment prescribed by your doctor.
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