“Cellular Structures”  

Cell Structures

    All living things (alive) are made of cells, and cells are the smallest units that can be alive.    Life is classified into five kingdoms, and they each have their own characteristic kind of cell (Cellular Structure).
    Examples of cellular structures include:

• Cell Membranes
• Cell Surface Extensions
• Cell Wall
• Chromosomes
• Extracellular Space
• Inclusion Bodies
• Intracellular Space
• Subcellular Fractions

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“Cellular Transport Mechanisms”  

    Cellular Transport Mechanisms involves all the various movement of molecules across cell membranes.

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“About Glands”  

About Gland Secretions

    The Gland cells secrete organic molecules synthesized by their own cellular processes. The Gland cells secrete salts and water, moving them from one extracellular compartment to another.

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“Genes & Protein Synthesis”  

    Genes are sequences of DNA Nucleotides that carry and transmit the information specifying an amino acid sequence for protein synthesis. Genes are found on chromosomes.
    Each DNA molecule contains many genes.

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“Cell Cycle (Cell Division Cycle)”  

Cell Cycle & Cell Division

    In our body, the Cell Cycle (Cell Division Cycle) is an ordered sequence of events, culminating in cell growth and cell division into two daughter cells, regulated by temporal activation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
    In our body, the Non-dividing cells are not considered to be in the cell cycle.
    Examples of cell division cycle include:

• interphase
  • G0 phase
  • G1 Phase
  • G2 Phase
  • S Phase
• cellular division
  • asymmetric cell division
  • cell nucleus division
  • Cytokinesis
  • Telomere Homeostasis

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“Metabolic Cancers (Cancer as a Metabolic Disease)”  

Cancer as a Metabolic Disease

    In our body, Metabolic Cancers are primarily a metabolic dis-eases involving the disturbance in energy production through respiration and fermentation.
    In our body, Cancer, as a disease (Disease Cancer), is a group of dis-eases characterized by an abnormal uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells.

In our body, Cancer (Invasive Carcinoma) is a non-inherited genetic dis-order arising from mutations in the somatic cells. This results in the failure of the body's control system that regulates cell division and results into uncontrolled growth.

In the body, Cancer is the term that defines the diseases with which abnormal cells divide uncontrollably.

Hallmarks of Cancer

    In our body, Cancer

1. Self-sufficiency in growth factors signaling: cancer cells acquire an autonomous drive to proliferate - pathological mitosis - by virtue of the activation of oncogenes such as ras or myc.
2. Insensitivity to growth-inhibitory (antigrowth) signals: cancer cells inactivate tumor suppressor genes, such as Rb, that normally inhibit growth.
3. Evasion of programmed cell death (apoptosis): cancer cells suppress and inactivate genes and pathways that normally enable cells to die.
4. Limitless replication potential: cancer cells activate specific gene pathways that render them immortal even after generations of growth.
5. Sustained angiogenesis: cancer cells acquire the capacity to draw out their own supply of blood and blood vessels - tumor angiogenesis.
6. Tissue invasion and metastasis: cancer cells acquire the capacity to migrate to other organs, invade other tissues, and colonize these organs, resulting in their spread throughout the body.

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“Proteins and Cellular Metabolism”  

    Protein function occurs due to a wide variety of molecules and ions that bind to specific sites on a protein's surface.

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“BioChemical Reactions & Enzymes”  

    BioChemical reactions involve: (1) the breaking of chemical bonds in reactant molecules and (2) making of new chemical bonds to form product molecules. For every action, energy is either added or released as heat during all BioChemical reactions.

Metabolism

    Metabolism consists of synthesis (anabolism) and breakdown (catabolism) of organic molecules required for cell structure and function.

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“ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)”  

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

    In our body's cells, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary molecule to which energy is transferred during the breakdown of the fuel molecules, carbohydrates and fats.

ATP

    In our body's cells, ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is an adenine (A) nucleotide known as the "Molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer, because ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells.

In our body, cells cannot use heat energy to perform ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) functions.

In our body's cells, ATP consists of a Nucleotide (with ribose sugar) with three phosphate groups. The energy coin of the cell. ATP plays an important role in the synthesis of Nucleic Acids (Polynucleotides).

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Synthesis

    In our body's cells, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) can be produced by various cellular processes, usually in the mitochondria by Oxidative Phosphorylation (OXPHOS) under the catalytic influence of ATP synthase.

The main fuel for ATP synthesis is glucose and fatty acids. Initially, glucose is broken down into pyruvate in the cytosol. Two molecules of ATP are generated for each molecule of glucose. The terminal stages of ATP synthesis are carried out in the mitochondrion and can generate up to 36 ATP.

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“Metabolic Pathways”  

    In our body, the Metabolic Pathways are a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by chemical reactions.

Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and may require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function properly. Because of the many chemicals that may be involved, pathways can be elaborate. In addition, many pathways can exist within a cell.

This collection of pathways is called the metabolic network. Pathways are important to the maintenance of homeostasis within an organism.

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“Homeostasis (Homeostatic Mechanisms & Cellular Communications)”  

Homeostasis

    In our body, Homeostasis is the autoregulation of the many different body processes which keep a relatively constant stable condition for our internal environment, resulting from the compensatory regulatory responses performed by our homeostatic control systems.

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“Neural Control Mechanisms”  

    In our body's nervous system, Neural Control Mechanisms include nerve cells called neurons generate electric signals that pass from one end of the cell to another and release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells

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“Sensory Organ Systems (Sense Organs)”  

Sensory Systems

    In our body, the Sensory System (Sense Organs) is a part of Nervous System consisting of sensory receptors that receive stimuli from internal and external environment, neural pathways that conduct this information to brain and parts of brain that processes this information.
    In our body, the Sensory Systems consists of the following sub-systems: auditory system (vestibular system), Gustatory System, Olfactory System, Somatosensory System, and Visual System.

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“Hormones”  

    A Hormone is any molecular messenger (chemical messenger) carried to an organ or group of cells that act as an agonist with a specific regulatory function, which may include both endogenous hormones and the non-endogenous hormones, such as semi-synthetic analogues and fully synthetic analogues.
    The hormone concept includes:

• anabolic agent
• growth hormone
• plant hormone
• sex hormone
• thyroid hormone

Examples of some hormone role concepts include:

• (R)-adrenaline
• acetylcholine
• calcitriol
• ecdysteroid
• farnesyl acetone
• glutaurine
• glutaurine zwitterion
• glutaurine(1−)
• juvenile hormone
• melatonin
• peptide hormone
• pyrabactin
• steroid hormone

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“Kidneys & Water Regulation (Renal Function)”  

Kidneys & Water Regulations

    In our body, Renal Function refers to the functions of the kidney and the regulation of water and inorganic ions anywhere in the body.
The Kidneys add and remove substances in and out of plasma.

1. Regulate water concentration, inorganic ion composition, and volume of internal environment by controlling their excretion.
2. Excrete metabolic wastes, including urea, uric acid, and creatinine into urine
3. Excrete foreign chemicals in urine
4. Synthesize glucose from amino acids and other precursors (gluconeogenesis).
5. Secrete the hormones, erythropoietin, renin, and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃

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“Musculature (Muscles)”  

Muscles

    In our body, Musculature (Muscles) is our body system or an arrangement of body contractile tissues (muscles) that produces movement as the whole or part of the body, or an organ system.

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